Cells and virus
THP-1 cells have been cultured in RPMI-1640 medium (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (GE, Boston, USA). NLRP3-KD THP-1 cells (a sort present from Dr. Yang, Chang Gung College, Immunology Middle) are THP-1 cells which can be contaminated with lentiviral vectors that carried NLRP3 shRNA. Human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells have been obtained from Dr. Shih Shin-Ru and grown in Dulbecco modified Eagle medium (DMEM) containing 10% FBS, 1% non-essential amino acids, 1% L-glutamine, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (all from Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA). All cells have been incubated in a 37 ̊C incubator that was equilibrated with 5% CO2. The EV-A71 pressure 2231 (TW/2231/98) was remoted from the Scientific Virology Laboratory of Chang Gung Memorial Hospital (Linkou, Taiwan), was amplified utilizing RD cells, and the titer was quantified by plaque forming assays.
Isolation of PBMCs and differentiation of PBMCs towards macrophages
Human peripheral blood samples have been collected after approval by IRB (Chang Gung Medical Basis institutional evaluation board, IRB2019050059). All of the analysis course of was carried out in accordance with IRB pointers and rules. The knowledgeable consent was obtained from all topics and/or their authorized guardians. Mononuclear cells have been harvested by Ficoll-Paque technique. Briefly, peripheral blood was combined with PBS (1:1). The diluted cell suspension was then layered on Ficoll-Paque (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, MA, USA) (quantity 2:1) in a 50 mL canonical tube. After centrifugation at 400 × g for 20 min, the highest layer was aspirated. The mononuclear cell layer within the interface was then transferred to a brand new tube. To distinguish the harvested PBMCs towards macrophages, RPMI medium supplemented with 20 ng/mL M-CSF (Peprotech, NJ, USA) and 1% human serum was added and cultured for five days.
Reagents
Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) was ready at 200 µM in DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide). 200 nM PMA was used to stimulate THP-1 cell differentiation. Ac-YVAD-cmk (Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA) was ready at 10 mM in DMSO. 1 µM Ac-YVAD-cmk was used to inhibit caspase-1 activation. Z-IETD-FMK (R&D methods, MN, USA) was ready at 20 mM in DMSO. 20 µM Z-IETD-FMK was used to deal with PMA primed THP-1 after virus an infection. Motolimod was dissolved at 1 mM in DMSO and simulated the cells at focus of 10 µM.
Virus an infection
Cells have been seeded in tradition plates and cultivated at completely different time factors. The seeded cells have been rinsed with PBS twice and serum-free medium was added with the virus at a specified multiplicity of an infection (M.O.I.). Adsorption was carried out at 37 °C for 1 h, and the medium was then decanted. The cells have been washed with PBS twice and a couple of% FBS containing medium was added for additional incubation.
RNA extraction and RT-qPCR
Trizol reagent (Life Applied sciences, Gaithersburg, MD) was utilized to extract complete RNA from cell samples. The cells have been lysis by Trizol reagent after which combined with chloroform. After 5 min, the homogenate was centrifugated at 12,000 × g for 15 min at 4 °C. The aqueous part was transferred to a brand new tube and added with an equal quantity of isopropanol after which incubated for 10 min. The combination was centrifuged at 12,000 × g for 8 min at 4 °C. After the centrifugation, the supernatant was eliminated. 500 µL 70% ethanol was used to clean the RNA pellet then centrifugated at 12,000 × g for five min at 4 °C. Discard the supernatant after which air dry the RNA pellet. The RNA pellet was dissolved in sterile water and quantified the concertation of RNA by NonoDrop expertise (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA). 1 µg of complete RNA was used to synthesize cDNA. RevertAid First Strand cDNA Synthesis Package (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) was utilized in response to the producer’s directions. To detect the expression of goal genes, particular primers for IL-1β and EV-A71 5’ untranslated area (5’UTR) have been used (Desk 1). qPCR assays have been carried out on 384-well plates and analyzed by a Roche Lightcycler 480 instrument (Roche, Basel, SW). Triplicate for every pattern in qPCR evaluation and 18s rRNA was used as a reference gene. The relative expression degree of every gene was analyzed by 2−ΔΔCT technique.
Protein isolation and western blot
The classy cells have been harvested at indicated time level. After washed with PBS twice, the cell lysates have been collected utilizing protein lysis buffer (1% NP-40, 50 mM Tris, and 150 mM NaCl) containing protease inhibitors cocktail (Bioshop, Ontario, Canada). After incubated on ice for 30 min, centrifugation was carried out at 13,000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C. The Supernatants have been harvested, and protein concentrations have been measured by Protein Assay Dye Reagent (Bio-Rad Laboratories, CA, USA). Proteins (30 µg) have been separated by 10% or 12% SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis after which transferred onto a polyvinylidene fluoride membrane (PVDF) (GE, MA, USA). The membrane was then blocked with 5% skim milk in Tris-buffered saline Tween-20 buffer (TBST) (20 mmol/L Tris–HCl, pH 7.4, 150 mmol/L NaCl, and 0.1% Tween 20) at room temperature for one hour. After washed by TBST twice, the membrane was then incubated with anti-EV-A71 3D Ab (1:10,000, was gifted by Professor Shih Shin-Ru), anti-EV-A71 VP0 (1:1000, Millipore, MA, USA), anti-IL-1β Ab (1:1000, Cell Signaling Know-how, MA, USA), anti-NLRP3 Ab (1:1000, Cell Signaling Know-how, MA, USA), anti-ASC Ab (1:2000) (1:1000, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, TX, USA), anti-caspase-1 Ab (1:1000, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, TX, USA), anti-caspase-8 Ab (1:1000, Cell Signaling Know-how, MA, USA), Anti-RIG-I Ab (1:1000, Enzo Life Sciences, NY, USA), anti-TLR3 Ab (1:1000, Abcam, CAMB, UK) and anti-TLR8 Ab (1:1000) (Invitrogen, CA, USA)., The unbound antibodies have been then eliminated by washing with TBST thrice. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies (1:5000, Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, Pennsylvania, USA) have been incubated for 1 h. Lastly, the goal proteins have been visualized with a Western Lightning Chemiluminescence reagent (PerkinElmer, MA, USA) and detected by ChemiDoc imaging system (Bio-Rad Laboratories, CA, USA).
Co-immunoprecipitation
Complete protein was harvested by IP lysis buffer (1% NP-40, 50 mM Tris, and 150 mM NaCl). 1 mg protein samples have been incubated with 2 μL anti-NLRP3 or anti-ASC after which rotated at 4 °C in a single day. After incubation, protein A and protein G agarose beads (all bought by Blossom Biosciences, CA, USA) have been added into the ready samples after which rotated for 4 h at 4 °C. After the hybridization, Immunoprecipitates have been washed by wash buffer (20% NP40, 1 M Tris–HCl pH 7.5, 5 M NaCl) thrice. Protein samples have been eluted by protein loading buffer (100 mM Tris–HCl, 10% glycerol, 0.1 M DTT, 2% SDS, and 0.1% bromophenol blue) and analyzed by immunoblot.
Extraction of viral RNA and transfection
Viral RNA was remoted from virions or RD cells contaminated with EV-A71 by QIAamp Viral RNA Kits (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). The RNA was quantified by NanoDrop expertise (Thermo Scientific). Cells have been transfected with viral RNA, RD RNA, 5’ppp-dsRNA or poly(A:U) utilizing Lipofectamine 2000 (LF2K) reagent (Invitrogen, CA, USA).
siRNA transfection
The siRNAs focusing on NLRP3, caspase-1, RIG-I, and TLR3, in addition to scramble siRNA, have been used on this examine (all from Sigma-Aldrich, MO, USA). The siRNA was ready in 20 μM with RNase-free distilled water. 100 nM siRNA was used to transfect into the cells with Lipofectamine RNAiMAX (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) in opti-MEM medium (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) for 48 h. After transfection, the cells have been contaminated with EV-A71 and harvested the pattern at numerous hours post-infection.
Lentivirus preparation and gene knockdown
The Lentivirus-based shRNA constructs used to focus on human TLR8 have been obtained from the Nationwide RNAi Core Facility (Taiwan) and destructive management of shRNA assemble (shNC) was obtained from Dr. Shih Shin-Ru (Chang Gung College, Taiwan). To arrange for lentivirus manufacturing, the HEK-293 T cells have been transfected with pMD. G, pCMVΔ8.91 and pLKO-shRNA, with TransIT-LT1 transfection reagent (Mirus Bio, WI, USA) for 48 h. The supernatant was harvested after centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C. The steady phenotype of shRNA knockdown THP-1 cells was chosen by 1 µg/mL puromycin after lentivirus an infection for 48 h.
Plaque assay
The full virus was harvested at completely different time factors after virus an infection. RD cells have been seeded on 6-well plate at a density of 5 × 105 cells per properly. After incubation, the collected virus was serially diluted by 0% FBS DMEM medium. RD cells have been washed with PBS twice after which contaminated by diluted virus medium. After absorption, the medium was eliminated and changed by 2% FBS DMEM medium containing 0.3% agarose. After 96 h of incubation, the medium was eliminated and the cells have been stained by crystal violet.
ELISA
The tradition medium was collected at completely different time factors. Centrifugation was carried out at 5,000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C then the supernatants have been harvested. IL-1β ELISA equipment was obtained from Invitrogen (Thermo-Fisher Scientific, MA, USA). The anti-IL-1β antibody was coating on the 96 properly plate in a single day at 4 °C. After incubation, 96-well plate was washed by washing buffer as soon as. Blocking the 96 properly plate by assay buffer for 1 h. Aspirate wells after which 100 μL requirements and samples have been added into every properly with detection antibody. The 96-well plate was incubated at 700 rpm for two h at room temperature. Aspirate wells after which wash by wash buffer 5 occasions. The working streptavidin-HRP was added into every properly after which incubated at 700 rpm for 30 min at room temperature. The plate was washed 5 occasions. TMB (3, 3′, 5, 5′-tetramethylbenzidine) resolution was added into every properly. Cease the response utilizing 2 M H2SO4 resolution. Detect the absorbance at 450 nm and 650 nm by microplate reader (BioTek, VT, USA).
Statistical evaluation
All experiments have been repeated a minimum of 3 occasions. Outcomes have been proven because the means ± SD. The information have been analyzed by Scholar’s unpaired T-test. The worth of p < 0.05 was indicated statistical significance.
